Similarities and differences between the USA and Saudi Arabia in Essay

Similarities and differences between the USA and Saudi Arabia in relation to their religion, politics, economic development, and social behaviors - Essay Example The paper tells that in Saudi Arabia, people’s way of life, the economy and politics are guided by the Islamic religion and their old customs. In contrast, the American society is guided by freedom and economic development. United States methods, therefore, differ from the Saudi people’s method. United States is the most religious developed country across the world. It is revealed that religion plays a great role in the life of American people. The history of United States is patent by freedom of religion. Constitution of this country is designed to ensure citizens have the power to establish religious practices. This, therefore, makes United States one of the countries with diverse religion. This is because it is estimated that there are over 100 different religious sects in the America. About 80 percent of them are Christians, while Jews and Muslims hold about 2 percent each. Majority of Americans are, therefore, followers of Christ. On the contrary, Saudi Arabia has Islamic as its official religion. As Muslims, Saudi Arabian people believe in God and prophets. However, they do not believe Jesus Christ was a son of God but rather a messenger. In addition, they believe Muhammad was also a messenger of God. The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is, therefore, referred as an Islamic theocratic dominion. The law in this country only allows Muslims to be the real citizens of this kingdom. However, non-Muslims are only allowed to visit and work in the kingdom but cannot acquire citizenship. Moreover, Muslims are the only ones permitted to visit holiest cities in the country. One of the holiest cities is Mecca, which houses Ka ‘aba, a pilgrim shrine that was built by Moses following an order from God. United States government and politics is a clear example of democracy. This is because they are allowed to choose their representatives in their relevant States during elections. States representatives then select the best candidate to contend for the preside ncy. United States’ citizen vote for their president through the electoral process called Electoral College system. In this case, every State has electors equal to the number of members in the House of Representatives. Additionally, two senators representing each State are also included in the Electoral College system. During the elections, United States’ citizens cast votes to electors who obligate to offer support presidential candidate desired by members of their State. Whenever a president is elected, he or she is supposed to run the office for a period less than two terms comprising four years each. President in United States is the head of government and State. In addition, he is the commander in chief of all the armed forces. The structure of government in United States is categorized in three levels, which include Local, State, and Federal governments. Federal government in United States is in charge of the entire nation and has three branches, which include th e legislative, executive and legislature. In addition, the government of United States conducts its affairs in accordance to the constitution of the country. This constitution outlines freedom of citizens, function of the three arms of government and democratic rule. On the contrary, Saudi Arabian government is monarch in nature with the head of state being referred as the king. Whenever the king demises, he is succeeded by his eldest son in the event. However, the king can also choose a heir to succeed him or her in the leadership of the country.

Social Impact Assessment Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Social Impact Assessment Report - Essay Example This report declares that the department of higher education has made the ratification processes easier and further reduced approval time frameworks for the social impacts assessment reports. The streamlined social impact assessment procedures emphases on high risks impacts and use results oriented procedures to manage the impacts of the project. These guidelines help the advocates to socially assess their projects, embrace a risk- based methodology to social impact assessment and focus on the results to welcome constructive solutions and take advantage of the social opportunities and reduce hazardous impacts that may emerge from the project. The emphasis is on building a relationship between advocates, stakeholders and groups of interest directly affected by the project. The relevant stakeholders thus informed of their expected roles in the development and implementation of the SIA. This paper stresses that the social scope studytackles issues related to the construction of the Middle East institutional studies. The population of this town majorly earns their living selling Carmel skin, milk and subsistence farming although yields are poor due to the harsh conditions. When Sheikh came along to issue a grant, the government welcomed the idea. It pledged to supply, offer maintenance services, and welcomed the public to take a participative role in decision-making processes. The public although worry of being displaced, the ministry of land promised to come up with an appropriate settlement procedure.

Economy and Environment (part of petroleum engineering group project) Essay

Economy and Environment (part of petroleum engineering group project) - Essay Example In this operation, there was both the capital expenditure (CAPEX) as well as the operating expenditure (OPEX) that will be involved in the initial years of the project, hence hindering any revenue generation in the initial years of operation. It therefore means that, the cash flow during the initial years will only consist of the CAPEX and the OPEX data before revenue generation begins. The project needed a capital injection for the first three years of operation before, hence no revenue for this period. On the fourth year, however, the project begins generating revenue. This is explained that, the project will begin producing oil on the fourth year with no or zero water at the beginning. The production will then continue after which, from the sixth year on to the ninth year, more water will be produced; hence the revenue is expected to reduce as less oil will be produced to increase the revenue. After year nine, the oil production is again expected to increase with a decrease in the production of water, hence there will be a rise in the NPV once again as oil production is expected to follow such a trend of increasing initially up to year seven where it will again be expected to decrease and again rise after year nine. This trend is demonstrated in the table below. Net Present Value is the difference between the present value of the cash inflows and the present value of the cash out flows. To calculate the Net Present Values, the project cash flows are discounted using an appropriate rate which is usually the minimum rate of the return required by the investors. The appropriate cash flows in this case are the after tax cash flows and the net cash flow is therefore estimated on an after tax basis. For this project, the appropriate discounting rate used was 7%. The various applicable rates for each year were calculated in the discounting

Service Concept Profiling And The Servqual Model

Service Concept Profiling And The Servqual Model In this assignment I am going to conduct a critique of the following service management ideas, theories, concepts and techniques; specifically with reference to their purpose, application and limitations and with regard to how these service management ideas, theories and techniques may contribute to the development of a successful business: Service concept, Service concept profiling and The SERVQUAL model. Service concept purpose, The service concept has been defined variously throughout the years, Haskett (1986), defines it as the way in which the organisation would like to have its service perceived by its customers, employees, shareholders and lenders, i.e. the organisations business proposition. It has also been defined as the elements of the service care package, this is related to what Collier (1994) named it as customers benefit package, i.e. the things that provide benefit and value to the customer. Another definition of a service concept states that a service concept identifies the proposed nature of the business; it is the service in mind that the organisation wishes to create. The service concept helps the organisation focus on the value that it can provide to customers.(Robert Johnston Graham Clark, 2008, p 461). Application A service concept can be broken down in to three stages, firstly the organising idea, this is the essence of the service bought, or used, by the customer. Secondly, the service experience, this is the customers direct experience of the service process which concerns the way the service provider deals with the customer and finally the service outcome, this is the result for the customer of the service (in particular, the benefits provided, the resulting emotions and assessment of value for money). (Robert Johnston Graham Clark, 2008, p 42). An example of a successful on-going business in terms of ideas, theories, concepts and techniques is a company called Metso, they are global supplier of technology and services to customers in the process industries, including mining construction, pulp and paper, power, oil and gas. Their service concept consists of; performance services, this increases product efficiency, optimises quality and improves environmental performance; availability services, this maximises asset availability and optimises total life-cycle costs of assets and finally engineering services, this helps complete projects on time and within budget, also helps maintain and develop competency of personnel. (Metso automation, 2010) Another example is Alton Towers, Organising idea: A great day out at a theme park. Service experience: exhilarating and entertaining, large car parks range of food outlets, good souvenir shops etc. Service outcome: Lots of rides, Great day out, Full day out etc (Robert Johnston Graham Clark, 2008, p 43) One other example is letsgototurkey.com, they categories their service concept into three parts: firstly, before purchase- this is when the company offers information about the region and property portfolio, provides flight information and pick up service from the airport. Secondly, during purchase- this is when they provide full information about the area and buying procedures, and also organising all procedures such as opening a bank account, translator and preparing all necessary paperwork. Finally, after purchase- assisting with registration of utilities, recommending the best shops around, helping with insurance and applying for a residence permit. Furthermore, the company has another option called property care, in which membership holders can benefit from certain things while they are away such as bills being paid, taxes being paid routine security checks are made and they also deal with relevant companies for insurance, maintenance, engineering etc. (Letsgototurkey.com, 2012) Contribute to the development of a business (benefit) Limitation Service concept profiling Purpose The service concept can also be used as a strategic tool, the service concept profiling tool is simply a diagnostic tool that will help an organisation to analyse its service concept. It is merely a tool that can give an organisation a visual representation of their service concept, by doing this, a service organisation can decide whether they need to change their service concept in view of what the competitors are doing/achieving, so as a tool it can provide a basis for a new service concept. The service concept can be used to create organisational alignment by developing a shared understanding and making it explicit (Robert Johnston Graham Clark, 2008, p 65). Managers can also assess the implications of design changes using capability mapping. Furthermore developing a service concept can create differentiated services and drive strategic advantage. An example of a business using a service concept profiling is 4sl consulting, their profiling method identifies an organisations maturity and effectiveness through; effective management and governance for delivering IT change; service life cycle management from strategy through operations and continuous service improvements; cost transparency for service pricing and charge back. The company finds these results through one-to-one meetings or via workshops, each with a robust and comprehensive assessment method. Service profiling results in an initial set of gaps, issues and constraints prepared alongside an action plan to bring immediate benefits. (4sl consulting, 2012) Application Contribute to the development of a business (benefit) Limitation With regard to limitations with regard to the service concept profiling tool, it is only a tool and as such it is a good starting place and may indicate to an organisation what element of the service concept may need to change, but does not take into consideration external factors such as what is happening in the macroeconomic environment. It also does not take into consideration the change management activities that follow on from changing the service concept. Suggestions Further, I would suggest that it might be critical to get the customer involved in profiling and i am not sure that organisations actually do this. The SERVQUAL model Various service quality models have been developed to measure service quality through firms in many businesses. Due to its relation with customer satisfaction it is very important to review service quality models. Moreover service quality has had a major impact on practitioners, managers and researchers because of its results in customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and company profitability. The most commonly known measuring tool in terms of service quality in the development of a successful business to reach success is an instrument called SERVQUAL. This model was developed by Parasuraman et al (1985; 1988). The research based on this instrument has been used in marketing literature and also used in various industries in terms of the variety of factors which influence and contribute towards the development of a successful business. Along with Parasuraman, Zeithmal and Berry, these three authors made substantial contribution to the understanding the concept of service quality and the factors that influence it. The SERVQUAL model has been productively used for measuring service quality in many service businesses. It has been used inmany contexts for example, service quality in hospitals, telecommunications, insurance companies etc. They originally identified four gaps in the organisation that can cause quality problems. These quality problems cause a fifth gap, which is difference between customer expectations of service and perceptions of the service actually received. (Jusuf Zekiri, 2011) The SERVQUAL Model has five dimensions which are tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy. If these dimensions remain constant this will unlock the door to consumer loyalty and provide outstanding levels of quality consumer care service within the service organization. However, not all dimensions are equal due to the fact that some dimensions are more towards the high levels of importance within the service organization as oppose to the other dimensions All dimensions are important to customers, but some more than others. Service providers need to know which are which to avoid majoring in minors. At the same time they cant focus on only one dimension and let the others suffer (Chris Arlen, 2008). An example of a a sector using the SERVQUAL model is Mobile Telecommunication Limitation Conclusion In conclusion These factors, theories and techniques collectively are part of the essential elements in terms of reaching the relevant necessary internal aims and objectives set, which help build, develop and improve an existing successful service organisation.50%of businesses dont survive within the first few years so its absolutely critical that service organisations grow and flourish in exceptional high levels of quality they deliver. Performance targets must be smart, measurable, achievable, realistic and time constrained In regards to the SERVQUAL model, it is an extensively used tool to assess external service quality, it can also be modified to assess the quality of the internal service provided by departments within a company to employees in other departments.

GENE THERAPY :: essays research papers

Many diseases seen today are the result of a defective gene in the DNA of the patient and can not be cured using the traditional methods such as antibiotics and antiviral medication. The victims are now looking to gene therapy as a potential cure for their problems. Bob Williamson introduces us the concept, procedures, and problems associated with gene therapy in his article,  ¡Ã‚ °Gene Therapy ¡Ã‚ ±. Along with the appearance of the recombinant DNA technology, it becomes possible for human beings to isolate, study, and change gene in the laboratory. Gene Therapy is the process of replacing a defective gene inside a patient ¡Ã‚ ¯s DNA with a working gene that will produce the correct gene products. The genetic diseases  ¡Ã‚ °in which a single known gene does not function properly ¡Ã‚ ±, such as sickle cell anaemia, thalassaemia and Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, are most suitable to be treated with the gene therapy. There are two types of gene therapy in curing these diseases, patient therapy and embryo therapy. In the process of the patient therapy, the first step is identifying the defective gene and isolating a normal counterpart.  ¡Ã‚ ° To obtain correct gene action, it may be necessary to put it into the correct site on the host cell chromosome, or even to delete the defective gene ¡Ã‚ ±, and the DNA can then be replicated each time the host cell divided. But if the new cell is injected directly into the patient ¡Ã‚ ¯s body, it will be subject to the body ¡Ã‚ ¯s immune system that will recognize it as foreign and target it to be destroyed along with the healthy DNA that it is carrying. So the cells extracted from the patient are to be treated and adding the new gene in a test tube in the laboratory to make sure that the DNA is inserted in an appropriate place in the genome, and the cells can then be returned to the patient ¡Ã‚ ¯s body.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Now it is possible to offer the parents an antenatal diagnosis to look over if the fetus is affected by some single gene defects. If it does, the parents can choose embryo therapy to cure it rather then abortion. While the basic process is similar with the one of patient therapy, to do an embryo therapy is a little bit easier than a patient therapy, because the immune rejection system of the embryo is not fully developed. The new DNA will not be ejected, while the former DNA will be altered.

The Meaning Of Life Through The Eyes Of Ivan Denisovich Essay example -

What is the meaning of life? This is one of the most frequently asked questions by all of humanity since the beginning of time. It is a question naturally asked by people because they have the ability to make choices about life. The question would appear to be difficult to answer and different for every individual depending on their circumstances. It is the ultimate search for truth and purpose in life, although the meaning of life is believed to be an idea that expresses their true purpose within life. These expressions can be defined within a given proximity in accordance with their current lifestyles. Ivan Denisovich ¡Ã‚ ¯s lifestyle differs from all aspects of a normal life, for his was depicted within a Siberian work camp in the Soviet Union. Within this camp all that mattered was the amount of food rations attained and the will to live the best he could. Although he was well aware of how things function in the camp, he learned when to work hard and when to take it easy, defi ning his acute character. The meaning in life through the eyes of Ivan Denisovich was to live a life of integrity and honesty, utilizing an optimistic attitude in all situations, while maintaining his upholding status. Ivan Denisovich is an old-timer in the prison camp and although he does odd jobs here and there to earn food or favors, he maintains a level of personal integrity. Integrity and honesty can be defined as the quality or state of being unimpaired or of being honest, refraining from lying, cheating, or stealing; being truthful, trustworthy, and upright. Ivan ¡Ã‚ ¯s honesty and integrity have been illustrated in many events that assure his own personal morals to live a life worthy of his own actions. He exemplifies these honorable morals in his actions throughout the entire day, which consisted of pitiful meals and harsh working conditions. He demonstrated his strict morality while eating dinner in the mess hall.  ¡Ã‚ °Yet, this old man is unlike all the other zeks. He sits upright and brings his spoon up to his lips. He does not put his bread on the dirty table, but on his clean rag. Somehow, even through countless years of prison life, he has maintained a sense of dignity. ¡Ã‚ ± He manifests his acute morals in all situations regardless of the status in which he is situated. He stands out, even though he is no different from any other, for many were wrongfully imprisoned for actions ... ...e been illustrated in many events that assure his own personal morals to live a life worthy of his own actions.  ¡Ã‚ °Somehow, even through countless years of prison life, he has maintained a sense of dignity. ¡Ã‚ ± Shukov demonstrated his integrity by attaining trust among the prisoners, a trust gained only from his previous engagements of sincere and honest deeds. Ivan ¡Ã‚ ¯s optimistic attitude motivated the others around him to perform the given tasks with a can do attitude. To a man, ones aspect of life can aspire a man to perform a great deed with a positive attitude, which Ivan had accomplished within the power plant. Ivan Denisovich ¡Ã‚ ¯s heart found sympathy for those who had suffered without a just cause for survival allowing him to remain sane throughout his sentence. His sanity was part of his meaning in life as his main goal was to live a life the best he could, and to maintain that life it was necessary for him to remain sane. Therefore the meaning in life through he eyes of Ivan Denisovich was to live a life of honesty and integrity with an optimistic attitude, allowing himself to sustain his own stature within his society while serving out his sentence as a prisoner of Communism.

Applied Linguistics Essay

Learner: * We see learning in different ways (Behavior –habit formation-; Innatism –response to behaviorism- ). â€Å"If we learn through habits, what about children? * Chomsky’s LAD theory: * Universal Grammar * We’re programmed to learn at least one language! Interactionism * Snow: Interaction is a vital factor, not LAD * Evidence: Accommodation of Language: * Language is modified by the kind of subject you’re talking to. * Modifying the way we’re using a language. * When we talk to children, we do it in a different way. * Subconscious act * Between Children and caretakers. * Between Natives and non-natives * The idea is to use a comprehensible input (Krashen) * The only way to learn English is to modify the way we speak – comprehensible input * Communication as a goal * Focus is on problem solving or accomplishing tasks Key concepts (cont. ) Intersecting angles: * Teaching methods and language assessment (Common European Framework of Reference) * Different Benchmarks for competence * International exams and certifications * Relationship between language and teaching * Teaching materials informed by linguistic corpora. * British national corpus * Language and language * Learner’s age * Kids and young people * Critical period * Content based language teaching – more flexible * Older people * It is more complicated to acquire a language when you’re getting old * Different focus of instruction, different reasons e. g. occupational, academic, etc. * You can teach different things in a certain age * Context * Physical locale (classroom or outside? ) * Immersion programmes * Teachers are putted into a context to teach to the target required * Problems: fluent, but no accurate. * Political pressures in some parts of the world e. g. Iraq, Japan, * Multilingualism in American classrooms – is not a priority right now * National language policies * What does it mean to learn a language? Money? Fun? * Tajikistan’s case: change from Russian to English * Future trajectory * Learn other subjects in an L2? How? * Is it possible that Chile would be a bilingual country? * Teaching in a language target * Endangered languages * People stop using a certain language * Reflection of a certain culture. * â€Å"The end of a language is also the end of a culture† * Linguistics Imperialism * We’re acquiring the English/American culture – English language is fixed by the culture: e. g. African English * English as a Lingua Franca * Universal language * Clusters: issues as non-native speakers – in fact, beach, special * Native speakers vs Non-native speakers â€Å"norms† * Technology * Computer-mediated contact with other languages and cultures * Internet-delivered language instruction * Use of corpora to access to the information. An introduction to Applied Linguistics * Language as a powerful tool * It gives access to information * Convincing (ads, politics) * Definition: * Is NOT the application of linguistics * Means many things for many people (Cook, 2006) * A group of semi-autonomous disciplines (Spolsky, 2005) * â€Å"†¦AL (is now) a cover term for a sizeable group of semi-autonomous disciplines, each dividing its parentage and allegiances between the formal study of language3 and other relevant fields, and each working to develop its own methodologies and principles† * Cook, 2003. * â€Å"the task of applied linguistics is to mediate between linguistics and language use† * The academic discipline concerned with the relation of knowledge about language to decision making in the real world * The scope of applied linguistics remains rather vague, but attempts to delimit its main areas of concern as consisting of language and education; language, work and law; and language information and effect. * Two interpretations * The source of applied linguistics. What applied linguistics draws on: * Narrow interpretation * (Linguistics) – Language teaching. * Usage of linguistic elements – semantics, phonology, pragmatics * Broad interpretation * (everything to do with language) * There are the different connotations of language * The target of AL * What applied linguistics equips you to do (SLA) * Language Acquisition (L1 and L2) * Psycho and Neurolinguistics * Sociolinguistics * Humor Studies * Pragmatics * Discourse Analysis and Rhetorics * Text/Processing/translation * Computational Linguistic * Corpus Linguistics * Dialectology BBC Documentary Horizon: Why do we talk? * Humans have a unique feature: we have a different language like animals * We have requests. * Complex process to pronunciate a word when child (â€Å"wa der† to â€Å"water†) * Language is exclusively human * Not much evidence about origins of language * Why chimps can make similar sounds like humans? * There are some parts of the brain involved in creation of words * Roots of language reception: Test on newborn babies * How much a baby is attending to a particular sound * We can recognize sounds from our beginnings * Chomsky’s theory: An innate ability to learn a language * Ability to talk is composed by words, meaning and sounds. It also INNATE * We’re BUILT ON SPEECH. * The KA family: communication in other ways are perfect, neither the speech * A DNA failure to create words * There’s no fossil evidences of speech communication * It is supposed that language was a practical way to defining rules * No one designed any language * Combination of words that can be easily remembered * Make sound to build a meaning * Dominant Theory of learning psychology: Behaviorism * Positive reinforcement * Habits are automatic and difficult to eradicate * If L1 differs to L2, L1 will interfere with formation of L2 habits e. g. use of articles (a/an, the) * Interference manifests itself in error (undesirable). * Learners need to overcome L1 features and replace them Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) * Analysis of L1 and L2 features (grammar and phonology) to determine similarities and differences between languages * Comparisons * CAH prediction * L2 features which are similar to L1: easy features to learn * Present simple, present perfect * L2 features which are different to L2: errors in L2 * People is are * Role of L2 instruction: teachers should focus on features which could be potential errors. Teaching via imitation, practice and error correction. * Mistakes are very dangerous here! – Immediate correction * E. g. â€Å"repeat after me! † Problems with CAH * Researchers trying ti apply CAH in analyzing L2 errors, soon found that: * Many errors could not be explained only by reference to L1 e. g. I goed * Many predicted errors were not made in L2 * Learners from different L1 made similar errors L2 * New weays of loking at L2’s errors Error Analysis * Corder (1967) * Learner language is a system in its own right * Errors are an important reflection of the state of L2 knowledge (system) and processing strategies. * Errors were a good thing; there is a reflection about thinking of new things * Developing rules – trial and fail * Processing: * Learners form hypothesis about L2 on the basis of their exposure to the L2 * These hypothesis are tested receptively and productively * If hypotheses disconfirmed, this leads to the formation and testing of new hypothesis Interlanguage (IL) * Concept created by Selinker (1972) * Coined the term Interlanguage to describe a learner’s language * Is the whole process of learning a language * No competence Native-like competence * Interlanguage is rule governed (systematic) and dynamic (in flux) * U shape performance: * High performance is developed in Beginner’s level and the Advance one * Explaining learner’s errors. * Main processes which can explain errors in L2 * L1 transfer * L1 rules interfering with L2 * Overgeneralization of L2 rules e. g. goed (use regular past tense with all verbs) * It happens a lot with children * Transfer of training errors due to the way L2 was taught e. g. overuse of â€Å"he† because teaching materials contain mainly reference to males * Formal language in formal contexts * Simplification e. g. omission of referent elements (articles, prepositions) * Elision / wanna talk to me? – instead of â€Å"do you wanna talk to me? † Problems with IL and errors analysis. * Focus on errors rather than entire learner language output (i. e. what a learner can do * Oriented to L2 norms – norms are often difficult to define (e. g. variety of acceptable pronunctiations of some words) * Attribution of errors to processes not always clear cut * Doesn’t consider variability Morpheme studies * Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning in English e. g. plural â€Å"s† (bound morpheme), article (unbound morpheme) * Influential study: Brown (1973) on First Language Acquisition (FLA) * Order of acquisition determined on basis of accuracy i. e. * Most accurate: acquired earliest. * The most developed item is the one which was developed earlier * Findings: although rate of acquisition may differ, order of acquisition same for all children. Acquisition order in FLA RANK| MORPHEME| EXAMPLE| 1| Present progressive| Boy singing| 2| Preposition| Dolly in car| 3| Plural| Sweeties| 4| Past Irregular| Broke| 5| Possesive| Baby’s toy| 6| Articles| A car| 7| Past regular| Wanted| 8| Third person singular| He eats| 9| Auxiliary â€Å"be†| He’s running| * Dulay and Burt (1973-1975) * Suppliance of a set of morphemes in obligatory context * Developmental Secquences. * Longitudinal research on acquisition of grammatical structures (e. g. negation, question formation word order) found: * Learners follow a set of order of stages of acquisition * L1 may affect how long a learner stays at any one stage * Learners cannot skip a stage, regardless of L2 instruction * Instruction can only affect speed of acquisition and whether learners reach final stage. Index readings – Test 1 – Monday 8th!! * Key concepts in language learning and language education * History and definitions * Introduction to SLA * Development of learner language. Developmental sequences Longitudinal research on acquisition of grammatical structures (eg negation, question formation word order) found: * Learners follow a set order of stages of acquisition * L1 may affect how long a learner stays at any one stage * Learners cannot skip a stage, regardless of L2 instruction * Instruction can only affect speed of acquisition and whether learners reach final stage * Naturalistic statement: the most important thing will be communication – people won’t correct anyone Variability in learner language. If IL is systenmatic, we should go thourg different stages. How can we account for variability in a learner’s interlanguage? * Need to distinguish between free vatiation and systematic variation: * Free variation may be due to: * Random errors * Performance factors, e. g. anxiety * Anxiety affects production * Early stage of IL: experimentation * People is is not a taboo * Systemic variation may be due to * Linguistic environment: e. g. omission of final ‘s’ may vary according to what sounds come before or after the letter ‘s’s * Situational context: e. g. the person the learner is speaking to (interlocutor) or setting may affect the perceived level of formality and thus how much attention Is given to accuracy * Fluency is affected by focus on accuracy * Psycholinguistic context: e. g. amount of planning time given before being asked to perform the task Input & Interaction * Input:anything that a learner is exposed to in the environment. Anything that is perceived. * Intake:processing. When you’re receiving language, you realize a certain structure subconsciously. * Uptake: when you do something observable with your input, if you make a mistake and then you have the correct version * Output: production of language – errors and mistakes are included * Comprehensible input:refers to modify the language and make it comprehensible * Negotiation of meaning: looking for answers for what you want to say – negotiatate what someone say: what? Could you repeat that? You said (†¦) or you said (†¦)? * Positive evidence vs. Negative evidence: * NE: corrections. Could be related to grammar * PE: Discrete parts of the language. It’s just language * Implicit vs. explicit feedback * Implicit feedback: we don’t really saying what the mistake is directly, but you’re uttering what you say. * Explicit feedback: correction – looking a language as an object * Recast: implicit feedback – fixing what you’re trying to say. When you’re emphasizing, it turns to explicit feedback. It’s supposed to be implicit. Introduction * Range of perspectives (theories) which explain how language (L1 and L2) is processed and ultimately acquired * All theories agree that learners need exposure to language (input – from a behaviorism focus, is important), but the kind of input and how that input is processed in order to become acquired vary * Today’s seminar focuses on the interaction hypothesis, a very influential theory in the field of SLA INPUT * Input is everything that you can get into the language * Language learner is exposed to (available for processing). * Two types of input: * Positive evidence: authentic or modified language – * Negative evidence: corrections Behaviorist perspective – Lado and Lee * From a behaviorist approach, Learners need positive and negative evidence (both) * Positive evidence: models that learners imitate and repeat (thus forming habits) * Negative evidence: given to prevent formation of â€Å"incorrect habits† * Language learning: process of imitation & habit formation Universal Grammar Perspective * Proponents: Chomsky (L1) White and Schwartz & Sprouse * Learners need ONLY exposure to positive evidence. * Positive evidence triggers processing in an innate language acquisition device * LAD contains principles (general rules about all human languages – e. g. Parts of speech) and parameters (rules which are language specific – e. g. â€Å"no voy† instead of I cannot) * Pro-dropped language * Dummy subjects * Second language acquisition: resetting parameters based on L2 evidence * Some debate in SLA: Is UG fully, partially on not at all available for adult L2 learners? * Is very unlike that is available. Is mostly partially available Krashen. Main argument: learners need only exposure to appropriate input (positive evidence) * Appropiate input: comprehensible input at a level slightly above the learner’s current level (i+1) input + something a bit higher * Comprehensible input will activate LAD: subconscious process * Comprehensible input: acquired knowledge (implicit knowledge used to produce language) * Is comes out, it flows * Conscious learning: learnt knowledge (explicit knowledge used to monitor language production) * If you’re giving negative evidence, they will acquire language * Difference between learning and acquiring language * Explicit knowledge does not become implicit knowledge (the non-interface position) * When you learn, you will not be able to acquire language Long’s interaction hypothesis * Built on Krashen’s notion of the importance of copmprehensible input for SLA * However difference in what makes input comprehensible * Krashen: emphasis on learner’s individual processing i. e. learner uses contextual clues, world knowledge to comprehend i+1 * Long (1983): interactions (negotiation of meaning) make input comprehensible * Findings: * â€Å"Speech modifications alone are rarely sufficient. Native speakers also make a lot of adjustments to the interactional structure of conversations, and it is conversational modifications of the latter sort that are greater, more consistently observed, and probably more important for providing comprehensible input† * Conversational modifications: * Repetitions * Confirmation checks (is that what you mean? ), often involve repetition uttered with a rising intonation * Clarification requests (what do you mean? ) e. g. Sorry? What? * Comprehension checks (do you follow me? ) e. g. OK? I+1: our current level of english Positive evidence: language Negative evidence: corrections Long’s interactional hypothesis Original version (1983): * deductive argument * Conversational modifications make negotiation input (negotiations of meaning) make inupt comprehensible e. g. Having conversations with native speakers will improve development of language THEN * Comprehensible input promotes acquisition (krashen) THEN * Negotiations of meaning -> promote SLA Research based on Long’s interaction hypothesis. * Variables that affect the quantity and type of conversational modifications (negotiation * moves) * Task type e. g. Doughty & Pica, 1986 * Learner variables (L1, proficiency in L2, gender) e. g. Pica et al. , 1991; Polio & Gas, 1998 * Extent to which negotiations facilitate comprehension e. g. Ellis et al. , 1994 * Extent to which negotiations lead to acquisition: results mixed e. g. Iwashita, 2003; Mackey, 1999 * Family will promote more negotiation Criticism of research and interaction hypothesis * Number of assumptions questions e. g. the more negotiations moves the better? * A social nature of research: ignores context and learner’s goals (ie is there always a clear one-to-one mapping of interaction moves and speaker’s intented meaning? * Deductive nature of argument: no mechanism to explain acquisition * Lack of robust evidence for L2 learning * Is anybody learning a language, or acquiring it? Negotiation of languge: Chance to process more the input and do something with that Swain’s outpout hypothesis * Research: language proficiency of students in Canadian immersion program, found that learners fluent but not accurate * Main argument: * Comprehensible input alone insufficient for learners to develop grammatical accuracy * Comprehension requires learners only to process language for meaning, not for syntax * Learners need to be pushed to produce accurate and appropriate language (output) * Students were fluent, but not accurate * Push them to produce more and more INPUT * Grammatical processing: basic to improve accuracy * Long * Role of input * Output provides learners with opportunities to: * Move from semantics, open-ended processing of language prevalent in comprehension to grammatical processing needed for accurate production. * Notice â€Å"gaps† in their interlanguage. * Test hypotheses abput language + receive feedback abput hypotheses * Reflect abput their language use + develop automaticity through practice (Gass, 2004) * Note: focus shifted from focus on positive evidence to negative evidence (corrective feedback) ->negative evidence * Negative feedback may be facilitative of L2 development * MEDIATED BY SELECTIVE ATTENTION: Focus on learner’s internal factors, drawing on work of Schmift’s (1999, 1993) on attention and noticing nypothesis * DEVELOPING L2 PROCESSING CAPACITY: draws on studies on developmental sequences & pieneman’s work on learnability to explain mixedfindings on negotiations and acquisition * NEGATIVE FEEDBACK OBTAINED DURING NEGOTIATION WORK: shift in focus from interactions providing comprehensible input to conversations providing opportunities for negative feedback * MAY BE FACILITATIVE†¦ ESSENTIAL FOR LEARNING CERTAIN SPECIFIABLE L1-L2 CONTRASTS: prediction abput which language structures are most likely to need negative feedback (L1-L2 contrats, e. g. dative alteration, adverb placement) * If the verb comes from latinate origin, is not possible to have dative alternation. If Germanic, it is. Why Long was unwilling to unchanged his hypothesis? * Previous hypothesis: * Krashen’s monitor hypothesis! * IS a contradiction: Monitor check contents to learn, but it doen’t help to ACQUIRE * Closest to BEHAVIORISM * Current Hypothesis: * New ways of correcting * KEY: GIVING FEEDBACK Cognitive accounts of SLA * SLA: acquiring a new knowledge system. Learning new information * Based on cognitive psychology, which models the human mind similar to a computer (up to a point) * Learning& ability for use: * NOTICE NEW INFORMATION, e. g. a vocabulary item (an interesting word such as â€Å"nuts†) or a feature of syntax like 3rd person singular –s * INTEGRATING NEW INFORMATION and comparing with the old one, e. g.relating the vocabulary item to similar ones or 3rd person-s to indicative present tense verb use * PROCEDURALIZING OR AUTOMATIZING, e. g. accessing the vocabulary itam / applying the 3rd person –s rule Areas of interest * A great deal of work in SLA has focused on noticing and attention because it is central to learning (Schmidt) * There is also some work on the interaction of new language information in long-term memory (Bialystok) * The type of knowledge (explicit/implicit) has also been studied, which is related to proceduralization / automatization The human cognitive system Outside world -> sensory register -> working memory -> long-term memory.